A review on heterogeneous photocatalysis for environmental remediation: From semiconductors to modification strategies

doi:10.1016/S1872-2067(21)63910-4

Abstract

Abstract:

Heterogeneous photocatalysis, an advanced oxidation process, has garnered extensive attention in the field of environmental remediation because it involves the direct utilization of solar energy for the removal of numerous pollutants. However, the application of heterogeneous photocatalysis in environmental remediation has not achieved the expected consequences due to enormous challenges such as low photocatalytic efficiencies and high costs of heterogeneous photocatalysts in large-scale practical applications. Furthermore, pollutants in the natural environment, including water, air, and solid phases, are diverse and complex. Therefore, extensive efforts should be made to better understand and apply heterogeneous photocatalysis for environmental remediation. Herein, the fundamentals of heterogeneous photocatalysis for environmental remediation are introduced. Then, potential semiconductors and their modification strategies for environmental photocatalysis are systematically presented. Finally, conclusions and prospects are briefly summarized, and the direction for the future development of environmental photocatalysis is explored. This review may provide reference directions toward understanding, researching, and designing photocatalytic remediation systems for various environmental pollutants.

Key words: Pollutant, Heterogeneous photocatalysis, Environmental remediation, Semiconductor, Modification strategy

Huijie Wang, Xin Li, Xiaoxue Zhao, Chunyan Li, Xianghai Song, Peng Zhang, Pengwei Huo, Xin Li. A review on heterogeneous photocatalysis for environmental remediation: From semiconductors to modification strategies[J]. Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 2022, 43(2): 178-214.

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Figures/Tables 42

Fig. 1. Number of journal papers on the photocatalytic degradation of various pollutants, retrieved using “photocatalytic” and “degradation” as two topic keywords, since 2001 (a) and retrieved using “photocatalytic” and “different potential pollutants” as topic keywords, since 2001 (b). Adapted from ISI Web of Science Core Collection, date of search: May 2021.

Fig. 2. (a) Some typical environmental pollutants; (b) Schematic of the characteristic photocatalytic processes of environmental pollutants on a single semiconductor photocatalyst. (b) Reprinted with permission from Ref. [114]. Copyright 2017, John Wiley and Sons.

Table 1 Important parameters of typical semiconductors.

Semiconductor	*E_CB	*E_CB	Light	Morphology	Modification strategy	Potential applications	Ref.
TiO₂	‒0.29	2.91	visible/UV	nanosheets/nanorods/ QDs/nanoparticles/ polycrystals	heterojunction construction/ doping/defect engineering/ cocatalyst loading	degradation/CO₂ reduction/ H₂ evolution/Photocatalytic conversion/antimicrobial agents	[31,32,33]
ZnO	-0.31	2.89	visible	nanosheets/nanorods/ nanowires/nanoparticles	heterojunction construction/ doping/cocatalyst loading	degradation/CO₂ reduction/H₂ evolution/antimicrobial agents	[34,35,36]
BiVO₄	0.33	3.13	visible	nanosheets/nanoparticles	heterojunction construction/ doping/cocatalyst loading	degradation/CO₂ reduction/ H₂ evolution	[37,38]
BiOCl	0.18	3.23	visible	nanosheets/nanospheres	heterojunction construction/ doping/cocatalyst loading	degradation/CO₂ reduction/ H₂ evolution	[39,40]
Ag₂O	0.19	1.39	visible/UV	nanospheres/nanospheres	heterojunction construction/ doping/cocatalyst loading	degradation/CO₂ reduction/ H₂ evolution/supercapacitors	[41,42]
AgVO₃	-0.3	2.1	visible	nanosheets/nanorods	heterojunction construction/ doping/cocatalyst loading	degradation/CO₂ reduction/ H₂ evolution/antimicrobial agents	[43,44]
Cu₂S	-0.06	1.04	visible	nanosheets/nanorods/ atomic layers	heterojunction construction/ doping/cocatalyst loading	degradation/CO₂ reduction/ H₂ evolution	[45,46]
ZnIn₂S₄	-0.84	1.56	visible	nanosheets/nanospheres	heterojunction construction/ doping/cocatalyst loading	degradation/CO₂ reduction/ H₂ evolution	[47,48]
CoAl-LDH	-0.87	1.23	visible	nanosheets/nanospheres	heterojunction construction/ doping/cocatalyst loading	degradation/CO₂ reduction/ H₂ evolution/supercapacitors	[49,50]
MIL-125-NH₂	0.72	2.02	visible	nanospheres	heterojunction construction/ doping/cocatalyst loading	degradation/CO₂ reduction/ H₂ evolution/adsorbents	[51,52]
UIO-66-NH₂	-0.67	2.03	visible	octahedra	heterojunction construction/ doping/defect engineering/ cocatalyst loading/phosphating	degradation/CO₂ reduction/ H₂ evolution	[53,54]
g-C₃N₄	-1.3	1.4	visible/UV	nanosheets/QDs	heterojunction construction/ doping/cocatalyst loading	degradation/CO₂ reduction/ H₂ evolution	[55,56]

Table 1 Important parameters of typical semiconductors.

Semiconductor	*E_CB	*E_CB	Light	Morphology	Modification strategy	Potential applications	Ref.
TiO₂	‒0.29	2.91	visible/UV	nanosheets/nanorods/ QDs/nanoparticles/ polycrystals	heterojunction construction/ doping/defect engineering/ cocatalyst loading	degradation/CO₂ reduction/ H₂ evolution/Photocatalytic conversion/antimicrobial agents	[31,32,33]
ZnO	-0.31	2.89	visible	nanosheets/nanorods/ nanowires/nanoparticles	heterojunction construction/ doping/cocatalyst loading	degradation/CO₂ reduction/H₂ evolution/antimicrobial agents	[34,35,36]
BiVO₄	0.33	3.13	visible	nanosheets/nanoparticles	heterojunction construction/ doping/cocatalyst loading	degradation/CO₂ reduction/ H₂ evolution	[37,38]
BiOCl	0.18	3.23	visible	nanosheets/nanospheres	heterojunction construction/ doping/cocatalyst loading	degradation/CO₂ reduction/ H₂ evolution	[39,40]
Ag₂O	0.19	1.39	visible/UV	nanospheres/nanospheres	heterojunction construction/ doping/cocatalyst loading	degradation/CO₂ reduction/ H₂ evolution/supercapacitors	[41,42]
AgVO₃	-0.3	2.1	visible	nanosheets/nanorods	heterojunction construction/ doping/cocatalyst loading	degradation/CO₂ reduction/ H₂ evolution/antimicrobial agents	[43,44]
Cu₂S	-0.06	1.04	visible	nanosheets/nanorods/ atomic layers	heterojunction construction/ doping/cocatalyst loading	degradation/CO₂ reduction/ H₂ evolution	[45,46]
ZnIn₂S₄	-0.84	1.56	visible	nanosheets/nanospheres	heterojunction construction/ doping/cocatalyst loading	degradation/CO₂ reduction/ H₂ evolution	[47,48]
CoAl-LDH	-0.87	1.23	visible	nanosheets/nanospheres	heterojunction construction/ doping/cocatalyst loading	degradation/CO₂ reduction/ H₂ evolution/supercapacitors	[49,50]
MIL-125-NH₂	0.72	2.02	visible	nanospheres	heterojunction construction/ doping/cocatalyst loading	degradation/CO₂ reduction/ H₂ evolution/adsorbents	[51,52]
UIO-66-NH₂	-0.67	2.03	visible	octahedra	heterojunction construction/ doping/defect engineering/ cocatalyst loading/phosphating	degradation/CO₂ reduction/ H₂ evolution	[53,54]
g-C₃N₄	-1.3	1.4	visible/UV	nanosheets/QDs	heterojunction construction/ doping/cocatalyst loading	degradation/CO₂ reduction/ H₂ evolution	[55,56]

Fig. 3. Factors affecting semiconductor-based heterogeneous photocatalysis in practical applications.

Table 2 Redox potentials of various reactive oxidation species (ROS) [67].

ROS	Chemical formula	Redox potential (vs. NHE (V))
Hydroxyl radical	•OH	1.8-2.7
Superoxide radical	•O₂^-	-0.33
Singlet oxygen	¹O₂	0.81
Sulfate radical	•SO₄^-	2.5-3.1
Peroxymonosulfate radical	•SO₅^-	1.1
Hydrogen radical	H•	-2.3
Hydroperoxyl radical	HO₂•	1.7
Peroxydisulfate radical	•S₂O₈^-	2.01

Fig. 5. (a) Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image of TiO2(B) microspheres; (b) N2 adsorption-desorption isotherms of TiO2(B) microspheres and P25-TiO2 materials; (c) Photothermal catalytic experiments (60 °C) of NO conversion, non-NO2 selectivity, and NO2 release ratio over TiO2(B) microspheres; Electron spin resonance (ESR) signals of •OH (d) and •O2- (e) for TiO2(B) microsphere and P25 samples under dark and UV-light conditions in 25 mM DMPO aqueous or methanol solutions; (f) Mechanism of NO removal by porous TiO2(B) microspheres via photocatalysis and photothermal catalysis. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [73]. Copyright 2020, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences.

Fig. 6. ESR spin-trapping tests (a,b) and Transient photocurrent response (TPR) spectra (c) of mesoporous Bi@Bi2O3 nanospheres and pure-Bi@Bi2O3; (d) Work function mappings of mesoporous Bi@Bi2O3 nanospheres, pure-Bi@Bi2O3, and P123-Bi@Bi2O3; (e) Pathways of adsorption and photocatalytic removal of NOx on the surface of the mesoporous Bi@Bi2O3 nanospheres. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [74]. Copyright 2021, Elsevier.

Fig. 7. Number of journal papers on antibacterial photocatalysis, retrieved using “photocatalytic” and “antibacterial” as two topic keywords since 2001, and the inset pie chart represents the proportion of journal papers on different microorganisms since 2001 (Adapted from ISI Web of Science Core Collection, date of search: May 2021).

Fig. 8. N2 adsorption-desorption isotherms (a), UV-vis spectra (b), EPR spectra (c), and PL spectra (d) of CST and GST; (e) Schematic of the photocatalytic antibacterial mechanism over GST. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [78]. Copyright 2021, Elsevier.

Fig. 9. SEM images of US-MoS2 (a), HY-MoS2 (b), and IN-MoS2 (c); ESR spectra of e- (d) and 1O2 (e) for the different MoS2 samples; (f) Photobacterial efficiency of MoS2 in the presence of different capture agents; and (g) schematic of the photoinduced sterilization mechanism over the MoS2 photocatalyst. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [87]. Copyright 2021, Elsevier.

Fig. 10. (a) Schematic of the conversion of various plastic wastes into C2 fuels via a designed two-step pathway under simulated natural conditions. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [97]. Copyright (2020) John Wiley and Sons. (b) Schematic of polymer photoreforming using a CNx/Ni2P photocatalyst. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [98]. Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 11. (a) Photocatalytic activity of RGO/TiO2 for the photocatalytic desulfurization of thiophene and (b) schematic of the possible photocatalytic desulfurization mechanism of RGO/TiO2 nanocomposites. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [107]. Copyright 2019, Elsevier.

Fig. 12. (a) O 1s XPS spectra of N-TiO2 and Si/N-TiO2; (b) PL spectra of different materials; (c) Adsorption ability and photocatalytic reduction efficiency of Cr(VI) over different materials under visible-light irradiation; (d) Schematic of the possible photocatalytic reduction mechanism of Cr(VI) over Si/N-TiO2 nanocrystals. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [113]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier.

Fig. 13. Schematic of the preparation of the Cd0.5Zn0.5S@ZIF-8 photocatalyst and charge transfer in the Cd0.5Zn0.5S@ZIF-8 photocatalyst under visible-light irradiation for the photocatalytic reduction of Cr(VI). Reprinted with permission from Ref. [124]. Copyright 2018, Elsevier.

Fig. 14. (a) TEM image of ZIF67-C3N4 (0.3); N2 adsorption and desorption isotherms (b) and photodegradation (c) of methylene blue (MB) in the presence of C3N4, ZIF67, and ZIF67-C3N4 (0.3); (d) Effect of initial pH of the MB solution on the photocatalytic degradation rate of MB; (e) Schematic of the possible photocatalytic degradation mechanism of MB over ZIF67-C3N4 (0.3). Reprinted with permission from Ref. [119]. Copyright 2020, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences.

Fig. 15. (a) SEM and (b) TEM images of the ZnIn2S4/SO-GCN heterojunction composite; (c) UV-vis absorption spectra of bulk ZnIn2S4 and SO-GCN and ZnIn2S4/SO-GCN heterojunction composite; (d) Photocatalytic degradation of 2,4-D by different photocatalysts under visible-light irradiation; and (e) schematic of the possible photocatalytic degradation mechanism of 2,4-D over the ZnIn2S4/SO-GCN heterojunction nanocomposite. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [28]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier.

Fig. 16. (a) O 1s XPS spectra of SnO2 and 2‐Zn‐SnO2; (b) EPR spectra of SnO2 and 2‐Zn‐SnO2; (c-f) Optimized adsorption of O2 and H2O on SnO2 and X‐Zn‐SnO2 calculated via DFT; (g-l) Adsorption of reactants and intermediates on the surfaces of SnO2 and Zn‐SnO2 calculated via DFT calculations; (m) Schematic of the photocatalytic degradation mechanism of toluene over the Zn‐SnO2 surface. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [140]. Copyright 2021, Elsevier.

Fig. 17. (a) Schematic of the fabrication of Ag/Ag2S/Bi2MoO6 plasmonic p-n heterojunctions and (b) schematic of the photocatalytic improvement mechanism of Ag/Ag2S/Bi2MoO6 plasmonic p-n heterojunctions for tetracycline degradation. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [148]. Copyright 2021, Elsevier.

Fig. 18. Controversy of the main active species (•OH or h+) in the photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants by Bi-based semiconductors.

Fig. 20. (a) Schematic of the photocatalytic degradation of methyl orange by plasmonic hot carriers in WO3-x nanosheets. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [165]. Copyright (2021) American Chemical Society. (b) Schematic of the photocatalytic reduction of Cr(VI) by W18O49. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [166]. Copyright 2021, the Royal Society of Chemistry.

Fig. 23. (a) UV-vis spectra of h-BN and S-BN samples; (b) Photocatalytic degradation rates of 2,4-D over h-BN and S-BN under different light conditions; (c) Schematic of interlayer charge transfer, band structure change, and 2,4-D degradation by S-BN photocatalysts. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [182]. Copyright 2019, Elsevier.

Table 3 Photocatalytic removal of environmental pollutants over metal-organic framework‐based photocatalysts.

Photocatalyst	Pollutant	Concentration (mg·mL^‒1)	Reactive species	Activity (%)	Time (min)	Ref.
NH₂-UiO-66/ZnIn₂S₄	MG	100	•OH	98.0	200	[185]
CoTiO₃/UiO-66-NH₂	NFX	20	h⁺, •OH, •O₂^-	90.1	60	[186]
In₂S₃/UiO-66	MO/TCH	15/30	•O₂^-	96.2/84.8	60	[187]
S-TiO₂/UiO-66-NH₂	BPA/Cr(VI)	5	•O₂^-	81.0/89.1	90	[188]
NH₂-MIL-101(Fe)	Bisphenol F	10	•OH, •O₂^-, ¹O₂, •SO₄^-	91.0	40	[189]
Ce/ZnGa₂O₄/NH₂-UIO-66	NO/EA	200/50	•O₂^-	100/96.2	90	[190]
M-Co₁₊_xFe_2-_xO₄/PMS	RhB	40	•SO₄^-	97.9	60	[191]
GC-N-TiO₂	TO	unknown	•OH, •O₂^-	76.0	60	[192]
Co-MOF-74	Toluene	1000	unknown	95.0	30	[193]
CoFe₂O₄/NMT (CFNMT)	RhB	35	h⁺	89.0	10	[194]
Al-PMOF(M)	NO₂	1000	unknown	23.5	360	[195]
Ag/AgCl@ZIF-8	LVFX	10	•OH, h⁺, •SO₄^-, •O₂^-	87.3	60	[196]
TiO₂-MIL-101(Cr)	TC	10	h⁺, •O₂^-	99.7	90	[197]
In₂S₃/MIL-100(Fe)	TC	10	h⁺, •OH, •O₂^-	70.0	90	[198]
Zn/Ti-MOF	RhB	10	•O₂^-	94.0	50	[199]
ZIF-8	E. coli	unknown	H₂O₂, •O₂^-	99.9	120	[200]
NH₂-MIL-125/Co(dmgH)₂	NO	unknown	•OH, •O₂^-	22.7	30	[201]
Ag NPs@MIL-100(Fe)/GG	MB	40	•OH, •O₂^-	100	100	[202]
MIL-53(Al)/ZnO	TRI	10	•OH, •O₂^-	93.5	240	[203]
BeTiO_2‒_x@ZIF-67	BHA	10	h⁺, •OH, •O₂^-	95.3	60	[204]
MOF-5/LTH	MB	30	•OH	98.1	125	[205]
Cu²⁺-MOFs	MB	unknown	¹O₂	99.7	1	[206]
MIL-167/MIL-125-NH₂	NFX	20	h⁺, •O₂^-	75.0	60	[207]
MIL-101(Fe)/PMS	MB	10	•OH, •SO₄^-	90.0	25	[208]
MIL-53(Fe)/SnS	Cr(VI)	20	h⁺, •OH, •O₂^-	71.7	60	[209]
P-doped carbon/Cu₂O	Phenol	40	h⁺, •OH, •O₂^-	99.8	90	[210]

Fig. 24. TPR (a) and EIS (b) of WO3, In2S3, WO3/In2S3 and WO3/TQDs/In2S3 with different TQD loadings. Schematics of the photocatalytic removals of Cr(VI) (c) and bisphenol A (d) by WO3/TQDs/In2S3 under visible-light irradiation. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [223]. Copyright 2021, Elsevier.

Fig. 25. 2D (a) and 3D (b) crystal structures of LDHs; (c) Schematic of the photocatalytic degradation of pollutants over LDH-based photocatalysts. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [225]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier.

Fig. 26. (a) Effect of gravitational force on a frog that jumps from the pond; (b) Electron-hole excitation and recombination on a single-phase photocatalyst. (b) Reprinted with permission from Ref. [114]. Copyright 2017, John Wiley and Sons.

Fig. 27. Schematics of the three types of separation mechanisms of electron-hole pairs in the case of conventional light-responsive heterojunction photocatalysts. (a) p-n; (b) surface; (c) S-scheme heterojunctions. (a) Reprinted with permission from Ref. [114]. Copyright 2017, John Wiley and Sons. (b) Reprinted with permission from Ref. [233]. Copyright 2014, American Chemical Society. (c) Reprinted with permission from Ref. [244]. Copyright 2019, Elsevier.

Fig. 28. Photoluminescence spectra (a) and photocurrent responses (b) of Bi2O3/Ti3+-TiO2; (c) Photocatalytic degradation mechanism of tetracycline over Bi2O3/Ti3+-TiO2 under visible-light irradiation. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [230]. Copyright 2021, Elsevier.

Fig. 29. (a) TEM image of HF0; (b,c) Field-emission scanning electron microscopy images of HF4.5 and HF9; (d) Comparison between the photocatalytic performances of P25-TiO2 and TiO2 samples with different amounts of HF for the reduction of CO2 to CH4; (e-g) Schematic of the spatial separation of redox sites on the {101} and {001} facets at different ratios. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [233]. Copyright 2014, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 30. (a) SEM and TEM images of spherical (Ts) and polyhedral (T1, T2, T3, and T4) TiO2 nanocrystals; (b) schematic of antibacterial photocatalysis over the TiO2 surface heterojunction. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [234]. Copyright 2017, American Chemical Society.

Fig. 31. (a) Efficiency of the oxidation of Hg0 to HgO over the anatase TiO2 photocatalysts with different ratios of {101} and {001} facets; (b) Schematic of the possible mechanism of photoinduced electron and hole transport and reaction mechanism over different facets. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [235]. Copyright 2017, Elsevier.

Fig. 33. (a) Photocatalytic activity curves of different composites for the degradation of CR; (b) Radical trapping tests of the SCNT6 sample for the degradation of CR using disparate scavengers; Calculated electrostatic potentials for the (101) facets of TiO2 (c) and SCN (d); (e) schematic of the proposed mechanism for the photodegradation of CR over SCN/TiO2 S-scheme heterojunction composites. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [245]. Copyright 2021, Elsevier.

Table 4 Photocatalytic removal of environmental pollutants over S-scheme heterojunction photocatalysts.

Photocatalyst	Pollutant	Concentration (mg·mL^‒1) or (mL·mL^‒1)	Activity (%)	Time (min)	Year	Ref.
ZnO/biochar	MB	160	95.2	220	2021	[36]
Bi₂O₃-ZnO	CR	200	99.0	60	2021	[60]
Bi₂MoO₆/g-C₃N₄	RhB	5	97.6	40	2020	[248]
BP/BiOBr	TC	10	85.0	90	2020	[249]
In₂O_3‒_x(OH)_y/Bi₂MoO₆	RhB/Cr(VI)	20/40	97.5/96.0	50/70	2020	[250]
WO₃/g-C₃N₄	TC	20	50.9	120	2020	[251]
CdS/ReS₂	Cr(VI)	50	unknown	30	2020	[252]
S-pCN/WO_2.72	TC/RhB	50/10	unknown	120	2020	[253]
Bi₁₂O₁₇Cl₂/α-Bi₂O₃	TC	20	77.0	100	2021	[254]
OV-Bi₂O₃/Bi₂SiO₅	MO/Phenol	10/10	67.0/30.0	420/360	2020	[255]
Bi₂WO₆/g-C₃N₄	ADN	200	98.9	80	2021	[256]
BiOBr/BiO(HCOO)Br_x	MG/RhB/TC	20/20/20	60.0/98.0/80.0	120	2020	[257]
Sb₂WO₆/BiOBr	NO	unknown	52.9	30	2020	[258]
CeO₂/PCN	Bacterial	unknown	88.1	15	2020	[259]
Bi₂O₃/TiO₂	Phenol	100	unknown	20	2021	[260]
g-C₃N₄-nanosheet/ZnCr₂O₄	TC/Phenol	20/5	89.7/88.2	60	2021	[261]
Sb₂WO₆/g-C₃N₄	NO	unknown	68.0	30	2021	[262]
CN/AgBr/BPNs	MO	10	98.0	30	2021	[263]
Ag/γ-AgI/Bi₂O₂CO₃/Bi	TC	10	84.0	100	2021	[264]
g-C₃N₄/SnO₂	NO	500	40.0	30	2021	[265]
Bi₂O₃/P-C₃N₄	LVFX	10	89.2	75	2021	[266]
BiVO₄/g-C₃N₄	HCHO	800	49.4	360	2021	[267]
BiOBr/g-C₃N₄	RhB	10	99.0	30	2021	[268]

Fig. 34. (a) Radical trapping experiments of CdS-g-C3N4-GA for the degradation of rhodamine B (RhB); ESR spectra of DMPO-•O2- (b) and DMPO-•OH (c); (d-f) Calculated electrostatic potentials based on DFT calculations; (g) Photocatalytic performances of different materials for the degradation of RhB; (h) Schematic of the proposed photocatalytic reaction mechanism of the CdS-g-C3N4-GA S-scheme heterojunction photocatalyst. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [246]. Copyright 2021, Elsevier.

Fig. 35. (a) Schematic of the preparation of OV-modified TiO2/Ti3C2 Schottky-junction photocatalysts; XPS spectra of A-TOTC-0.5 (b) and A-TOTC-4 (c); (d) BPA degradation performance of photocatalysts; (e) schematic of the proposed mechanism for the enhanced photocatalytic activity of A-TOTC-2 for the degradation of BPA. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [272]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier.

Fig. 36. (a) XPS spectrum of the PCNNi photocatalyst; Fourier transform infrared spectra (b), PL spectra (c), TPR spectra (d), band structures (e), and photocatalytic TC degradation activities (f) of CNB, PCN, and PCNNi materials. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [289]. Copyright 2021, Elsevier.

Fig. 37. (a) TEM image of the S/Ti = 0.25 ST photocatalyst; (b) UV-Vis spectra and (c) photocatalytic activities of various ST photocatalysts with different S/Ti molar ratios for the degradation of PYR by ST/Sulfite/Vis LED; (d) Photocatalytic activities of various ST photocatalysts with different S/Ti molar ratios for the degradation of PYR by ST/Oxone (HSO5-)/Vis LED; (e) Schematic of the possible activation mechanism of HSO5- over the S-TiO2 surface. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [290]. Copyright 2021, Elsevier.

Fig. 38. (a) Metals and non-metals in the periodic table used for the synthesis of metal phosphides for catalytic applications. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [293]. Copyright (2021), the Royal Society of Chemistry. UV-Vis spectra (b), TPR (c), and photocatalytic TC degradation activities (d) of NP, NCL, and NPLDH; (e) Photocatalytic degradation mechanism of TC on NPLDH under visible-light illumination. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [294]. Copyright 2021, Elsevier.

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